Spatial learning, orientation and navigation

When we drive or walk unknown routes, assistance systems guide us to our destination. But can we concurrently acquire spatial knowledge in the process? Or do we consequently forget how to orient ourselves?

We are researching the question of how spatial information is represented in memory. We address the consequences of permanent use of assistance systems. After all, orientation goes beyond reaching a destination or remembering a route. Orientation means being able to point out the directions to important places and to mentally update these directions when moving through environmental space. Orientation can also mean building up a mental map of the surroundings. With orientation and a cognitive map, we can navigate flexibly and autonomously. This ability should not get lost.

Over time, relying on navigation assistance has increased. In 2014 and 2023, we surveyed large representative samples of the German population on the use of navigation systems. The use of smartphone apps for navigation assistance in particular has increased in all age groups during this period; the assistance systems are now being used also among older people. There was no correlation between the frequency of navigation system use and the graded agreement (or disagreement) with the statement “My sense of direction is very good” in either 2014 or 2023. Frequent navigation device use therefore appears to have no consequences for people's own sense of direction (at least as they feel it). Research results speak against this: Studies show that people actually learn less about their spatial surroundings when using navigation assistance. Navigation systems can therefore contribute to a reduction in spatial learning and orientation –  even without being noticed.

Unfortunately, today's assistance systems do not help us with orientation. However, this could be optimized: as we have shown in our research, certain visualizations (such as additional directional information like a compass) can help to improve orientation. For our part, however, we could use the information provided by navigation systems more attentively and actively.

It is therefore also of interest how the available (often map-based) information is actually used by human navigators. This is why we have recently been investigating how typical digital map displays of navigation systems are read and whether route information can be extracted and learned from them. We are focusing less on the characteristics of the navigation systems and more on the abilities and skills of the users. By analyzing eye movements, incorporating spatial abilities and also through targeted instruction and training, we are researching the reading processes and want to improve competence in using digital navigation assistance.

Corresponding researchers: Prof. Dr. Stefan Münzer, Hatice Dedetas  

Science communication
Contributions and interviews in German popular science journals such as „Psychologie heute“, „Gehirn & Geist“, „Spektrum“, media such as ZDF / ARD / BR, etc., examples:
Spektrum.de, „Schaden Navigationssysteme unserem Orientierungssinn?“
BR4, „Mit Apps und Maps: Warum wir mit Navi die Orientierung verlieren“

Selected publications related to this research
Fehringer, B.C.O.F., Münzer, S., Dedetas, H. (2025). Perspective taking ability is important in map reading for navigation – Unless you follow the instruction.Journal of Environmental Psychology, 103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102584

Münzer, S., Lörch, L., &  Frankenstein, J. (2020). Wayfinding and acquisition of survey knowledge with navigation assistance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 26(1), 73-. DOI:10.1037/xap0000237

Krukar, J., Münzer, S., Lörch, L., Anacta, V .J. A., Fuest, S., & Schwering, A. (2018). Distinguishing sketch map types: A flexible feature-based classification. In: Creem-Regehr, S.; Schöning, J.; Klippel, A. (eds) 11th International Conference, Spatial Cognition 2018, LNAI 11034, pp. 279–292, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96385-3_19

Anacta, VJ; Schwering, A; Li, R; Münzer, S. (2017): Orientation information in wayfinding instructions: evidences from human verbal and visual instructions. GeoJournal 82: pp 567–583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-016-9703-5

Münzer, S., Fehringer, B.C.O.F., & Kühl, T. (2016a). Standardized norm data for three self-report scales on egocentric and allocentric environmental spatial strategies. Data in Brief, 8, 803–811. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2016.06.039

Münzer, S., Fehringer, B.C.O.F., & Kühl, T. (2016b). Validation of a 3-factor structure of spatial strategies and relations to possession and usage of navigational aids. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47, 66–78.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.04.017

Münzer, S., Zimmer, H. D., & Baus. J. (2012). Navigation assistance: A trade-off between wayfinding support and configural learning support. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(1), 18–37. DOI: 10.1037/a0026553

Münzer, S., & Stahl, C. (2011). Learning routes from visualisations for indoor wayfinding: Presentation modes and individual differences. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 11(4), 281–312. DOI: 10.1080/13875868.2011.571326

Münzer, S. & Hölscher, C. (2011). Entwicklung und Validierung eines Fragebogens zu räumlichen Strategien (Development and validation of a self-report measure of spatial orientation). Diagnostica, 57 (3), 111–125. DOI: 10.1026/0012-1924/a000040